The removal of Manual Scavenging that is human waste by hand is a practice banned in India since 1993; however, the Supreme Court, in October 2023, acknowledged the continued practice (Dr. Balram Singh v. Union of India). It is often associated with the caste system, especially in relation to the Dalit community. This guide looks at various court orders, legislation and the official figures concerning deaths and workers. It outlines the NAMASTE scheme. Wherever possible, official sources are used. Figures are included where they differ.
What is manual scavenging?
In 2013, legislation on the topic divided manual scavenging and the hazardous cleaning of sewers and septic tanks (Dr. Balram Singh v. Union of India). Manual scavenging refers to the cleaning of human waste by hand from dry latrines and other facilities. Cleaning of sewers and tanks is hazardous if done without safety equipment and adequate precautions (Drishti IAS, “NAMASTE Scheme”). Our article on Article 17 of the Constitution explains the constitutional prohibition of untouchability and how it influences these laws.
Manual scavenging and caste
The employment of scavengers is based on caste. As of 2013, 58,098 scavengers were identified, and data on caste was found for 43,797, of which 97.25% were SCs (Anantam IAS, “Manual Scavenging and the Dignity of Sanitation Workers”). Separately, under the NAMASTE scheme, 34,901 sewer and septic tank workers were profiled, of which 67.91% were SCs, 15.73% OBCs, 8.31% STs, and 8.05% the general category (DD News, citing a Lok Sabha reply by Ramdas Athawale). The two groups differ, and therefore the percentages should not be compared. To understand scheduled castes and who dalits are, you can check our respective guides. To understand what casteism is, you can check our post on the same.
Manual scavenging in India: 1993 law and the Act of 2013
In 1993, the Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act banned the employment of manual scavengers (Anantam IAS). The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 (Anantam IAS) extended the ban to sewers and septic tanks and railway tracks, and outlawed hazardous cleaning without safety devices, and made the state liable to provide rehabilitation.
While the Act of 2013 criminalizes manual scavenging, it also makes provisions for the rehabilitation of manual scavengers so that they are freed from the work (Dr. Balram Singh v. Union of India). It mandates the Central Government to carry out a national survey within two months of its enforcement to identify manual scavengers for providing them rehabilitation (Supreme Court Order dated 2nd May 2023 quoted by Verdictum).
The Supreme Court order, 2023
On 31st January 2023, Public Interest Litigation (PIL) was filed by Dr. Balram Singh for non-implementation of laws of 1993 and 2013 (Centre for Law and Policy Research, “Dr. Balram Singh v. Union of India”). On 20th October 2023, a two-judge bench of Justices S. Ravindra Bhat and Aravind Kumar gave 14 directions (Centre for Law and Policy Research). The Court noted that the Union of India and the States were under a legal obligation to abolish manual scavenging (LiveLaw, “‘Completely Eradicate Manual Scavenging’”). The main directions were:
- Compensation was enhanced to Rs.30 lakhs (LawBeat, LiveLaw).
- For other disabilities, an amount of not less than Rs.10 lakhs (Rs.20 lakhs in case of permanent disability which leaves the person economically helpless) was awarded (LawBeat).
- The governments must set up a mechanism for accounting for the sewer deaths (Centre for Law and Policy Research).
- Manual sewer cleaning must be completely abolished in a phased manner (Centre for Law and Policy Research).
The judgment is available at IndianKanoon.
What the data shows: manual scavenging deaths
As per the Lok Sabha data in July 2022, 347 deaths were reported in the last five years due to cleaning of sewers and septic tanks, with Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Delhi accounting for 40% of the total (Outlook, October 2023). Thereafter, in the Lok Sabha data, 622 deaths of sanitation workers from 2017 were reported, and the data also showed inconsistency in compensation, and some districts reported deaths for which no compensation was given (Newsgram, March 2026). The numbers are from the government data, and the definitions, periods and counts differ.
As per the law, death of a scavenger while cleaning sewers is classified as a case of ‘hazardous cleaning’, and not of manual scavenging (Dr. Balram Singh v. Union of India; Anantam IAS). Please see the log.
What is the total number of manual scavengers?
In the 2013 Act, the government conducted a survey, and according to them, they found 58,098 manual scavengers, which they shared with the Parliament (Dr. Balram Singh v. Union of India). The Court noted that the numbers of the 2013 survey were significantly lower than the numbers of the 2018 survey, and stated that numbers of manual scavengers were not provided correctly (Dr. Balram Singh v. Union of India). As per a report citing the Press Information Bureau, in 2018, 44,217 manual scavengers were found in 14 states (India CSR citing PIB), please see the log for the difference.
The official stance has since shifted. A recent nationwide survey in 2024-25 did not identify any manual scavengers in any district, according to the government (InclusiveIAS; India CSR, citing PIB). In 2023, a central monitoring committee of the Social Justice Ministry held that the problem of manual scavenging had been solved (Outlook), despite the practice still persisting in multiple forms. So, there are contradictory reports of the situation, and the Court itself said the figures were not reliable.
NAMASTE scheme
The National Action for Mechanised Sanitation Ecosystem (NAMASTE) scheme was launched in July 2023 (Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, “NAMASTE”). It aims to provide mechanised sanitation, health insurance, financial assistance, skills training, and other benefits to sanitation workers. It merged the earlier scheme for rehabilitation of manual scavengers (Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment).
The scheme provides safety trainings and protective gear to septic tank and sewer workers, and health insurance (Drishti IAS). By January 2026, more than 89,000 workers in the sector were validated under NAMASTE (Newsgram, March 2026), and over 87,000 protective equipment kits were distributed (India CSR, citing PIB). The scheme aims to ensure zero deaths of sanitation workers (Usthadian Academy).
Where the sources disagree
According to the government, its surveys have not found any manual scavengers. The Court said that the practice of manual scavenging is continuing, that the death figures are either on the rise or fall, depending on the period and definition. Different statistics count different categories of people. The 2013 Act defines manual scavengers. NAMASTE profiles sewer workers. The deaths in hazardous cleaning are self-explanatory. Please treat the numbers as belonging to the definition with which they are associated. Our Bonded Labour article and whether Untouchability Exists article answer similar questions. Our article on the Prevention of Atrocities Act article talks about the law to protect the Dalit community. (The Ambedkarite Educational Program teaches communities to document their first-hand accounts. Blog writing, the use of AI tools, and email marketing skills have become essential for communities in documentation. The AEP also teaches web design, Google Maps Embed and Google Forms, etc)
Takeaway
Manual scavenging has been banned in India since 1993, and the 2013 Act widened the ban and promised rehabilitation. In October 2023, the Supreme Court said the practice continues, raised compensation for sewer deaths to ₹30 lakh and issued 14 directions. Official figures conflict: 58,098 manual scavengers were identified in earlier surveys, the government says a 2024–25 survey found none, and Lok Sabha replies report hundreds of deaths in sewer and septic tank cleaning. The NAMASTE scheme tries to replace hazardous work with mechanised cleaning, and its results are not yet clear.
Frequently Asked Questions
Is manual scavenging banned in India?
Yes. The 1993 Act first banned it, and the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 widened the ban to sewers and septic tanks and required rehabilitation.
What did the Supreme Court order in 2023?
In Dr. Balram Singh v. Union of India (October 20, 2023), the Court issued 14 directions, raised compensation for sewer deaths to ₹30 lakh and told the Union and states to ensure complete eradication.
How many people die cleaning sewers in India?
Government data in the Lok Sabha showed 347 deaths in the five years to July 2022, and a later reply reported 622 sanitation worker deaths since 2017. The counts depend on the period and definition.
What is the NAMASTE scheme?
The National Action for Mechanised Sanitation Ecosystem, launched in July 2023, aims to prevent hazardous cleaning through mechanisation, safety training, protective equipment and health insurance for sewer and septic tank workers.
Who are manual scavengers?
In the 2013 Act surveys, caste data was available for 43,797 of the 58,098 identified manual scavengers, and 97.25 per cent were Scheduled Castes.
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SOURCES
- Indian Kanoon, Dr. Balram Singh v. Union of India, Supreme Court of India, October 20, 2023
- Centre for Law and Policy Research, “Dr. Balram Singh v. Union of India & Ors.”
- LiveLaw, “‘Completely Eradicate Manual Scavenging’: Supreme Court Directs Union & States,” October 20, 2023
- Verdictum, “Supreme Court Enhances Compensation For Manual Scavengers To ₹30 Lakhs,” October 20, 2023
- LawBeat, “Union, States duty bound to completely eradicate manual scavenging,” October 21, 2023
- Outlook, October 20, 2023
- Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, “National Action for Mechanised Sanitation Ecosystem (NAMASTE)”
- DD News, “Over 57,000 sewer and septic tank workers identified under NAMASTE scheme”
- India CSR, “NAMASTE Scheme Validates 89,915 Sewer and Septic Tank Workers” (citing PIB)
- Newsgram, “622 Sanitation Worker Deaths Since 2017,” March 2026
- Anantam IAS, “Manual Scavenging and the Dignity of Sanitation Workers”
- InclusiveIAS, “The Prohibition of Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013”
- Drishti IAS, “NAMASTE Scheme”
- Usthadian Academy, “NAMASTE Scheme”
